Direct Collocation

Definition

Direct Collocation is a class of methods that directly discretize Optimal Control Problems (OCP) into Nonlinear Programming Problems (NLP) for numerical solution. Unlike indirect methods that require analytical derivation of costate first-order optimality conditions, direct methods simultaneously discretize state and control variables through collocation, transforming the infinite-dimensional continuous OCP into a finite-dimensional NLP. It is currently one of the most widely used numerical methods in spacecraft trajectory optimization.

Basic Principles

Discretization Strategy

In direct collocation, the transfer interval $[0, t_f]$ is divided into $N$ sub-intervals, with simultaneous satisfaction at collocation points in each sub-interval:

State dynamics constraint: Enforce $\dot{\mathbf{x}} = f(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{u})$ at collocation points
Boundary conditions: Initial state $\mathbf{x}(0) = \mathbf{x}_0$ and terminal constraint $\mathbf{x}(t_f) \in \mathcal{T}$
Path constraints: Control constraints $\|\mathbf{u}\| \leq 1$ , obstacle avoidance constraints, etc.

Hermite-Simpson Collocation

The direct collocation implementation used in the A2PPO research employs the Hermite-Simpson collocation scheme:

On each sub-interval $[t_i, t_{t+1}]$ , state is interpolated using cubic Hermite polynomials
Dynamics defect constraints are enforced at the interval midpoint $t_{i+1/2}$
State accuracy at collocation points is third-order, defect constraint accuracy is third-order

Comparison with A2PPO

Ul Haq et al. (2026) used trajectories generated by the A2PPO policy as initial guesses for direct collocation, verifying consistency between the two across four scenarios:

Scenario	A2PPO ToF (days)	Direct Collocation ToF (days)	A2PPO Fuel (kg)	Direct Collocation Fuel (kg)
S1	4.95	4.99	2.08	1.28
S2	8.38	7.26	5.00	5.29
S3	7.60	7.63	5.10	5.11
S4	33.6	33.12	0.97	0.97

Direct collocation typically achieves better fuel efficiency due to exploitation of complete continuous optimality conditions, but:

Requires good initial guesses (A2PPO provides high-quality initial solutions)
High computational cost, requiring re-solution for each transfer
Cannot be computed online in real-time

A2PPO, after training, can perform real-time inference, providing near-instantaneous trajectory solutions.

Direct vs. Indirect Methods

Property	Direct Collocation	Indirect Methods
Derivation difficulty	Lower (no analytical costate equations)	Higher (requires PMP derivation)
Initial guess	More robust	Sensitive (to costate initial values)
Solution accuracy	Higher	Extremely high (satisfies first-order optimality)
Convergence	Better	Depends on initial guess quality
Computational efficiency	Moderate (NLP solvers like Ipopt)	Higher (but narrow convergence basin)

NLP Solvers

NLPs resulting from direct collocation discretization are typically solved using Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) or interior point method solvers:

Ipopt: Large-scale nonlinear programming solver based on interior point methods
SNOPT: Sequential Quadratic Programming solver
CasADi: Symbolic computation framework for constructing NLPs and calling the above solvers

References

Betts J T. Survey of numerical methods for trajectory optimization[J]. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 1998.
Ul Haq I U, Dai H, Du C. Autonomous low-thrust trajectory optimization in cislunar space via attention-augmented reinforcement learning[J]. Aerospace Science and Technology, 2026.
Hargraves C R, Paris S W. Direct trajectory optimization using nonlinear programming and collocation[J]. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 1987.